Fig. 1

Lichen thalli of the same species, distributed across various locations with different climatic variables, were collected. (a) Collection map of host lichens. A total of 150 epiphytic Parmotrema tinctorum were collected, with ten samples from each of the five sub-sites at three geographically distinct areas with varying latitudes. The mapping was visualized in QGIS v.3.6. (b) Hierarchical heatmap and (c) principal coordinate analysis ordination revealed statistically significant differences in the climatic factors across the three regions. * p < 0.05, ns p ≥ 0.05